Violence in the Classroom: Fists, Fortune and the Art of Pugilism

No sport ever held so many captive as the manly art of pugilism did during its hundred year reign (circa 1740-1840) in Britain. Perhaps it was the primal essence of man against man or the ardor with which the combatants threw themselves at each other again and again that drew people into the spectacle of the fight. Far from being purely a sport however, the art and science of bare-knuckle pugilism had wide ranging cultural impacts. In the ring it seemed that a great measure of equality could be found and the restrictions of social class removed. Essentially the story of pugilism is part of the story of Britain.

What began as a way to settle disputes between peasants and those of the lower classes, fist fighting became a form of entertainment and defense that almost the entire nation of England supported and practiced. Later coined pugilism, this ancestor to modern boxing was a viscous and harrowing pastime. This cruel form of boxing had not only sportive application, but martial application as well. Figures such as famed Master-at-Arms James Figg, among many others, opened training academies to those interested in learning the art of pugilism.

Granted that a set of fists were in the possession of every person in England, the use of pugilism for defense flourished. The popularity of such martial employment of the fist spawned counter movements that attempted to degrade the sport, such as could be found in the forward to the treatise on singlestick, Anti-Pugilism published anonymously in London during 1790.

Whereby Gentlemen may become Proficients in the Use of those Weapons, without the help of a Master and be enabled to Chastise the Insolence and Temerity so frequently met with, from those fashionable Gentlemen, the Johnsonians, Big Bennians, and Mendozians of the present Day; a Work, perhaps, better calculated to extirpate this reigning and brutal Folly, than a whole Volume of Sermons…
-Anti-Pugilism, 1790

Although the allusions to the art of pugilism itself as well as the more famous boxers of the period (Johnson, Mendoza, ‘Big Ben’) are at times quite vitriolic in such treatises as Anti-Pugilism (whose title even smacks of such ill will), little effect was seen on the popularity of pugilism both as a sport and martial art.

Pugilism’s martial side was often cited as a desirable defense against all unarmed (and even some armed) attackers. Several period treatises and manuals (such as Captain John Godfrey’s Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense of 1747 and Donald Walker’s Defensive Exercises of 1840) cover various drills and exercises designed to make one proficient in the art of pugilism for personal protection. Not limited to just written work, the Masters-at-Arms taught specific curriculums dedicated to pugilism. While producing people learned in the art of pugilism for defense, such schools also turned out National Champions in the sportive side of the art.

Despite the lashing out at pugilism by some members of British society, many turned out to not witness bouts but to participate in them as well. People from all levels of society sought to enter the ring, either for money, pride, fame, or all three. It was popular with those of the gentry to spar with the Master-at-Arms, teachers, and champions who were skilled in pugilism. Such matches, such as those played with John Jackson, the Champion of England in 1795, were viewed to be quite an honor.

Lower social classes were also drawn to ring, often times for the same reasons as those of higher social station. Yet for the poor and impoverished, pugilism also seemed a ‘ray of hope’. Much like gladiatorial contests of the ancient days, those of a lower class could make a name for themselves through display of skill and amassing of victories in the ring. Pugilism was, for the lower levels of British society, a rough road to a better life. This road was not limited to a specific race, many slaves won their freedom and fortune through the sportive side of pugilism. Black boxers, such as Tom Molineaux, even approached the level of National Champion and found themselves far elevated beyond the social rank previously placed on them.



The advancements afforded by the sport of bare-knuckle pugilism did come with a rather steep price tag though. Physically, the sport was demanding and often was quite violent. Unlike modern boxing, a cadre of brutal skills could be used. Before the sport was formalized boxers could employ such cruel methods as wrestling each other in ring if they came to grips, kicking was allowed (considered quite manly, even when an opponent was knocked down), "purring" (a slang term for tearing at an opponent’s shins with the boots worn by period pugilists), and eye-gouging, which was hugely popular with many crowds. Records even exist of pugilists growing their thumbnails quite long in order to cut an opponent with it during matches. Boxers of the day could expect to receive a substantial amount of damage to their bodies, no matter if they fought only once or for a living, no matter which side of a strike they were on.

Asides from the tolerance for pain that was required for participation in the sportive side of pugilism, physical endurance was also a necessity for both opponents. It was not uncommon for matches to last for well over twenty rounds, some even being recorded lasting as long as eighty rounds of cruel and bloody punishment. Often times, wagers and bets spurred matches and fighters on long after their safe limit. At times, a fighters seconds (or assistants as they would be called today) would actually hold up a fighter and manipulate his limbs into strikes in a particularly large course or bet was dependant on the outcome of the fight.



It was not until after Jack Broughton , the Champion of England from 1738 to 1750 and named the "Father of the English School of Pugilism", delivered a fatal blow to an opponent during a bout in1743 that any set rules for boxing were developed. It was Broughton himself that delineated the first set of rules and "refined" the sport. Broughton wished to distill boxing to an accurate science and as such advocated fair play and unnecessary violence. While fights still only ended in a knockout or resignation, the rules put forth by Broughton made fights both safer and fairer. Among Broughton’s rules were:

- the outlawing of strikes below the belt.
- prohibiting hitting an opponent that was down, (an opponent on his knees was considered down).
- wrestling holds were allowed only above the waist.
- a 3-foot square in the was drawn in the center of the ring and when a fighter was knocked down, his handlers had thirty seconds to position him on one side of the square to be considered ready for the next round. If they failed, or the fighter signaled resignation, the fight was over.
-to prevent disputes, every fighter should have a gentleman to act as umpire, and if the two cannot agree, they should choose a third as referee.

These simple rules were quickly adopted and remained standard into the nineteenth century when bar-knuckle fights lost favor to gloved bouts (gloves were deemed mandatory in all fights, as well as a number of other more contemporary boxing rules, after the establishment of the Marquis of Queensbury rules in 1865).

Patronage for pugilism was often found in the royal and upper crust families of Britain. Those of the gentry supported the sport with monetary contributions and wagers. In 1750 the Duke of Cumberland lost 50,000 pounds betting for Broughton against pugilist Jack Slack. The loss caused the Duke to expect foul play and ordered all boxing amphitheaters shut down after which pugilism was suppressed for the next thirty years of the Duke’s reign. Such a stigma actually did little to curtail the popularity of pugilism, it continued to find spectators and fighters if of lesser quality and discredit some aspects of the sport. It was not until 1788 that pugilism once again achieve its former glory under the patronage and attention of the three sons of King George III.



Proponents and opponents of pugilism existed well through out the arts life. The former claimed that the practice of boxing demanded strength, honor, discipline, endurance, courage, physical ‘perfection’ and respect for one’s opponent. Also stressed was the fact that it was nearly unique to Britain and, as a result to some, superior to all other arts. Opponents to the sport of pugilism often did not bother to refute the claims of the arts supporters point by point, only needing to cite the character of the crowds drawn to its spectacle and the state of the combatants at the end of a bout. With the advent of rules such as those put forth by Broughton and the subsequent change they brought to the sport, wider acceptance was found.

Race, as in other aspects of life, was an issue in the art of pugilism during the period of the sport’s popularity. Black fighters were not uncommon and many even journeyed from the United States of American to spar with Britain’s celebrated pugilists. Freedom was even found by British slaves in the ring after winning a series of bouts or displaying exceptional skill. Yet despite the opportunities it provided to the slaves, racism was still unfortunately rampant. Example can be found in the match between American former-slave William Richmond and the bare-knuckle Champion of England, Tom Cribb. The fight was widely publicized and drew a substantial crowd, in front of which Richmond lost the fight to Cribb (after which it was recorded that "the crowd was pleased that a black man had been put in his place.")



Other black pugilists, such as the African-American Tom Molineaux (who had been trained by William Richmond) ventured to England in search of fame in the ring. Molineaux, like his predecessor Richmond, also encountered the Champion Tom Cribb. Molineaux’s and Cribb’s fight of 1810 lasted for forty rounds in which Cribb was all but beaten in the twenty-eighth. An infraction of the rules was cited against Molineaux (speculated by many to have been racially based), however, and allowed Cribb a chance to recover. Molineaux remained the popular winner after the call, but had a turn of his luck and hit his head on a ring post, which severely effected his performance. Cribb went on to defeat Molineaux in the thirty-ninth round.

Thirty-second [Round]: Strength was fast leaving both the combatants - they staggered against each other like inebriated men, and fell without exchanging a blow.

Thirty-third [Round]: To the astonishment of every spectator, Molineaux rallied with strength enough to bore his man down; but both their hits were of more show than effect.

Thirty-fourth [Round]: This was the last round that might be termed fighting, in which Molineaux had materially the worst of it; but the battle was continued to the 39th, when Crib evidently appeared the best man, and at its conclusion, the Moor the first time complained, that 'he could not fight no more!' but his seconds, who viewed the nicety of the point, persuaded him to try the chance of another round, to which request he acquiesced, when he fell from weakness, reflecting additional credit on the manhood of his brave conqueror, Tom Cribb.
- Pierce Egan, Sketches of Pugilism, 1823

Britain’s participation in the conflicts and wars of the time left an indelible mark on pugilism and actually served to increase the reputation of the sport at home and abroad. Continental forms of pugilism were developed and became popular throughout Europe. Schools of boxing opened up that taught what were considered many different "styles" of pugilism, such as English and Venetian. The sport also gained a foothold and immense popularity in the United States, where its practice was viewed as "barbarous" by pugilism's many proponents in Britain. In some locations, pugilism even became the primary method of settling disputes of honor, whereas in times past they would have been settled with pistol or sword.

Despite the brutality of the art at times, pugilism succeeded in becoming Britain’s national sport during its ‘golden years’ from 1740 to 1840. As such, it helped to shapes the countries identity, not only for its own people but for the rest for the world as well. Although seen as overly violent by some, the expression of British life it created was unique to the nation and its people. Many attributes of British society could be seen in the art, and undeniably it was the very art of pugilism that composed a part of the foundation on which the same society was built.